UNIT 1

SOME AND ANY

Some and any are used to state the quantity, amount of something. When using some or any, the exact number is not stated. Some and any are quantifiers.

Some and any can be used when:

1. The exact number is not known.
2. The exact number is not important or relevant.
3. Some and any are used with countable and uncountable nouns.

Study the following tables:

Interrogative	Affirmative	Negative
Are there any tomatoes in the fridge?	Yes, there are some.	No, there aren't any.
Is there any orange juice?	Yes, there is some.	No, there isn't any.

Offering	Responding
Would you like some coffee?	Yes please I'd like some.

Making a request	Responding
Would you mind lending me some money?	Of course here you are.

The rules of some and many:

SOME:

Use some in positive (affirmative) sentences. Some is used for both countable and uncountable nouns.

Examples:

I have some friends.(friends is countable)
I'd like some water. (water is uncountable)

ANY:

Use any for countable and uncountable nouns in:

1. interrogative sentences.
   Examples:
   Have you got any cheese? (cheese is uncountable)
   Have you got any friends? (friends is countable)
2. negative sentences.
   Example:
   He hasn't got any cheese.
   He hasn't got any friends in Chicago.

EXCEPTION:

Use some in questions when offering or requesting something.
Example:

• Would you like some bread? (offer)
• Can I have some water, please? (request)

Something, anything, somewhere, anywhere, someone ,anyone:

The same rules are true for something and anything, someone and anyone, and somewhere and anywhere.

Policeman:	Is there anyone at home?
Criminal:	Yes there is someone there. My friend!
Policeman:	Is there anything in your pocket?
Criminal:	Yes there is something. A gun!
Policeman:	Did you go anywhere recently?
Criminal:	Yes I went somewhere. I went to the old man's house to steal his money.

MUCH AND MANY

Much and many – they can be a bit confusing. Many people would use them properly, but most likely based on intuitive judgment. Yet, there are definite rules on how to use the words correctly.

Both ‘much’ and ‘many’ are determiners, and have the same or similar definition. They mean ‘a lot of’, or ‘in great quantities’, or ‘a great amount’. They may mean the same, but their usage differs.

These are the rules regarding the usage of ‘much’ and ‘many’ in the English language:

If a noun is an uncountable noun (which is often in singular form), the ‘much’ determiner should be used.

Examples:

1. How much money will it cost me?
2. This is what I get for drinking too much coffee.
3. How much sleep do you get every night?

On the other hand, the determiner ‘many’ should be used with countable nouns, or plural nouns.

Examples:

1. How many brothers and sisters have you got?
2. There are many empty chairs in the event.
3. How many fruits are there on the table?
4. Many children are impoverished in that region of the world.
5. There are many challenges that lie ahead.

A LOT OF AND LOTS OF

A lot of and lots of are used to express that there is a large quantity of something.

We use a lot of in positive sentences, negative sentences and questions. This expression can be used withcountable or uncountable nouns.

• There are a lot of dogs in the street. (Countable noun)
• I have a lot of time to answer your questions. (Uncountable noun)
• I saw a lot of people waiting in the queue. (Countable)
• We did have a lot of fun, didn't we? (Uncountable)

We use lots of in positive and negative sentences, however it is more informal. It can be used with countable or uncountable nouns, and occasionally in questions.

• We have lots of time to catch the plane, let's relax. (Uncountable noun)
• There are lots of people in the queue today. (Countable)
• Oh my, you have spent lots of money on clothes! (Uncountable)
• I have lots of questions. (Countable)

She has a lot of money = She has lots of money

Few vs. Little

We use a few and a little to suggest a small quantity or not much of something.
A few is used with countable nouns (= some; not many)
A little is used with uncountable nouns (= some; not much)

• There are only a few days left until Christmas. (Countable noun)
• I have a few crazy friends. (Countable noun)
• I would like a little milk for my coffee. (Uncountable noun)
• There is little hope of finding your wallet. (Uncountable noun)

While Few and Little usually have negative meanings, especially when used with very.

• He is sad because he has few friends. (Countable noun)
• There are few honest politicians. (Countable noun)
• There is little hope of finding your wallet. (Uncountable noun)
• They have very little knowledge about politics. (Uncountable noun)

UNIT 2

ARTICLE A, AN, THE

What Are Articles?

Articles are words that define a noun as specific or unspecific. Consider the following examples:

After the long day, the cup of tea tasted particularly good.

By using the article the, we’ve shown that it was one specific day that was long and one specific cup of tea that tasted good.

After a long day, a cup of tea tastes particularly good.

By using the article a, we’ve created a general statement, implying that any cup of tea would taste good after any long day.

English has two types of articles: definite and indefinite. Let’s discuss them now in more detail.

The Definite Article

The definite article is the word the. It limits the meaning of a noun to one particular thing. For example, your friend might ask, “Are you going to the party this weekend?” The definite article tells you that your friend is referring to a specific party that both of you know about. The definite article can be used with singular, plural, or uncountable nouns. Below are some examples of the definite article the used in context:

1. Please give me the hammer.
2. Please give me the red hammer; the blue one is too small.
3. Please give me the nail.
4. Please give me the large nail; it’s the only one strong enough to hold this painting.
5. Please give me the hammer and the nail.

The Indefinite Article

The indefinite article takes two forms. It’s the word a when it precedes a word that begins with a consonant. It’s the word an when it precedes a word that begins with a vowel. The indefinite article indicates that a noun refers to a general idea rather than a particular thing. For example, you might ask your friend, “Should I bring a gift to the party?” Your friend will understand that you are not asking about a specific type of gift or a specific item. “I am going to bring an apple pie,” your friend tells you. Again, the indefinite article indicates that she is not talking about a specific apple pie. Your friend probably doesn’t even have any pie yet. The indefinite article only appears with singular nouns. Consider the following examples of indefinite articles used in context:

Please hand me a book; any book will do.

Please hand me an autobiography; any autobiography will do.

Exceptions: Choosing A or An

There are a few exceptions to the general rule of using a before words that start with consonants andan before words that begin with vowels. The first letter of the word honor, for example, is a consonant, but it’s unpronounced. In spite of its spelling, the word honor begins with a vowel sound. Therefore, we use an. Consider the example sentence below for an illustration of this concept.

Ø  My mother is a honest woman.

Ø  My mother is an honest woman.

Similarly, when the first letter of a word is a vowel but is pronounced with a consonant sound, use a, as in the sample sentence below:

Ø  She is an United States senator.

Ø  She is a United States senator.

This holds true with acronyms and initialisms, too: an LCD display, a UK-based company, an HR department, a URL.

Article Before an Adjective

Sometimes an article modifies a noun that is also modified by an adjective. The usual word order is article + adjective + noun. If the article is indefinite, choose a or an based on the word that immediately follows it. Consider the following examples for reference:

–        Eliza will bring a small gift to Sophie’s party.

–        I heard an interesting story yesterday.

Indefinite Articles with Uncountable Nouns

Uncountable nouns are nouns that are either difficult or impossible to count. Uncountable nouns include intangible things (e.g., information, air), liquids (e.g., milk, wine), and things that are too large or numerous to count (e.g., equipment, sand, wood). Because these things can’t be counted, you should never use a or an with them—remember, the indefinite article is only for singular nouns. Uncountable nouns can be modified by words like some, however. Consider the examples below for reference:

Please give me a water.

Water is an uncountable noun and should not be used with the indefinite article.

Please give me some water.

However, if you describe the water in terms of countable units (like bottles), you can use the indefinite article.

• Please give me a bottle of water.
• Please give me an ice.
• Please give me an ice cube.
• Please give me some ice.

Note that depending on the context, some nouns can be countable or uncountable (e.g., hair, noise, time):

• We need a light in this room.
• We need some light in this room.

Using Articles with Pronouns

Possessive pronouns can help identify whether you’re talking about specific or nonspecific items. As we’ve seen, articles also indicate specificity. But if you use both a possessive pronoun and an article at the same time, readers will become confused. Possessive pronouns are words like he, I, we, our, it, her,and their. Articles should not be used with pronouns. Consider the examples below.

Why are you reading the my book?

The and my should not be used together since they are both meant to modify the same noun. Instead, you should use one or the other, depending on the intended meaning:

• Why are you reading the book?
• Why are you reading my book?

Sometimes you will need a “the”, “a” or “an” in front of your nouns in English grammar, but sometimes you use no article at all before the noun.

No article

Do not use an article before a noun if that thing cannot be counted (an uncountable noun), such as water or information. You will also not use this noun in the plural (with an “s” at the end).

Examples:

• “I travel to America every few months.”
• “Beauty is in the eye of the beholder.”
• “I love democracy.”
• “Family is very important to me.”
• “We are having chicken for dinner.”

Notice how none of these nouns use an article (the/a/an) or are plural. This is because these are uncountable nouns in which we do not use these words as specific countable amounts.

UNIT 3

Active and Passive sentence in Present form

1.       Theory of active voice and passive voice

• Active voice is the sentence that accompanied the transitive verb with subject in front of verb such as actors who perform an act.
• Passive voice is a form of the verb phrase that accompanied the three (Past Participle) describe the thing done (by the perpetrator).

Example : Active voice sentence are as follows :

1. We eat rice everyday.
2. You drink milk every morning.
3. The teacher explaining the lesson.

Example : Passive voice sentence are as follows :

1. Rice is eaten everyday.
2. Milk is drunk every morning.
3. The lesson is being explained by the teacher.

Active sentences into passive sentences :

Subjects in active sentence has been at the front of the verb, and object there behind the verb. Note the changes in passive sentences below. Objects can be located in front of the verb. Past Participle (Verb to 3) is always used in active sentences.

Example :

1. (Active)                : We need water.

(Passive)              : Water is needed.

2. (Active)                : They admire Madona.

(Passive)              : Madona is admired.

3. (Active)                : We educate our children.

(Passive)              : Our children are educated.

2. Active and passive sentences in Simple Present.

• Active sentences in present tense using the verb 1.
• Passive sentences in present tense to use am/is/are + V3.

Example:

ACTIVE	PASSIVE
I turn the light off at bed time.	The light is turned off at bed time.
We import a lot of cars from japan.	A lot of cars are imported from japan
Recless drivers cause many accidents.	Many accidents are caused by recless drivers.
Road accidents injure many people every day.	Many people are injured in road accidents every day.

 3. Active and Passive Sentences in Present Continuous.

• Active sentences in the Present Continuous Verbs to ING.
• Present Continuous Passive Sentences in am / is / are + being + verb to-3.

Example:

ACTIVE	PASSIVE
They are looking at you.	You are being locked at by them.
The men are cutting down the trees.	The trees are being cut down.
The police officer is questioning the bad boys.	The bad boys are being questioned by the police officer.
The committee is considering your proposal.	Your proposal is being considered by the committee.

4. Active and Passive Sentences in Present Perfect.

• Active in the present perfect sentences using the Have / Has + verb to
• Passive Sentences in the present perfect to use Have / Has + been + verb to-3 

Example:

ACTIVE	PASSIVE
A mosquito has bitten me.	I have been bitten by a mosquito.
We have warned him about that.	He has been warned about that.
They have signed the agreement.	The agreement has been signed.
We have delivered the catalog.	The catalog has been delivered.

UNIT 4

Active adn Passive sentence in past form

§  Simple Past

Active sentences in the simple past tense have the following structure:

Subject + past tense form of the verb + object

Passive sentences in the simple past tense have the following structure:

Object of the active sentence + was/were + past participle form of the verb + by + subject of the active sentence

v  Changing an assertive sentence into the passive

ACTIVE	PASSIVE
He wrote a letter.	A letter was written by him.
They knew it.	It was known to them.
She sang a song.	A song was sung by her.
He loved his friends very much.	His friends were loved very much by him.

v  Changing a negative sentence into the passive

ACTIVE	PASSIVE
She did not know anything about it.	Nothing about it was known to her.
Nobody could discourage him from pursuing his path.	He could not be discouraged from pursuing his path by anybody.
You did not listen to me.	I was not listened to by you.
She did not write a story.	A story was not written by her.

v  Changing an interrogative sentence into the passive

Passive forms of these sentences begin with did. If the active sentence begins with a question word, the passive sentence will also begin with a question word. If the active sentence begins with who or whose, the passive sentence will begin with by whom or by whose. If the active sentence begins with whom, the passive sentence will begin with who.

ACTIVE	PASSIVE
Did he break the window?	Was the window broken by him?
Where could you find such fine art?	Where could such fine art be found?
Why did you abuse your servant?	Why was your servant abused by you?
Did anyone steal your purse?	Was your purse stolen by anyone?

§  Past Countinous

Rules of Active and Passive voice (mentioned below) shows that helping verb 'Was/Were + Being' is used with 3rd form of verb for making Passive Voice of Past Continuous Tense.

Helping Verb in Passive Voice is used as per the Subject of the Passive Voice (Object of Active voice which becomes Subject of Passive Voice). If the Subject of Passive Voice is plural, Helping Verb of plurals will be used irrespective of the fact that in Active Voice, the subject was Singular.

In case of Negative sentence, 'Not + Being' is added after helping verbs and in case of Interrogative sentence helping verb comes in the starting of the sentence and place of 'Being' remains before Verb (3rd form)

In all types of sentences - Positive, Negative & Interrogative, 3rd form of verb is used in Passive Voice.

Rules 

  

Type of Sentence	Rule of making Past Continuous Tense (Active Voice)	Rule of converting Past Continuous Tense (Active Voice) to Passive Voice
Positive	Subject + Was/Were + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object + (.)	Convert Object to Subject + Was/Were + Being + Verb (3rd form) + By + Convert Subject to Object + Remaining + (.)
Negative	Subject + Was/Were + Not + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object + (.)	Convert Object to Subject + Was/Were + Not + Being + Verb (3rd form) + By + Convert Subject to Object + Remaining + (.)
Interrogative	Was/Were + Subject + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object + (?)	Was/Were + Convert Object to Subject + Being + Verb (3rd form) + By + Convert Subject to Object + Remaining + (?)

Examples 

Active Voice	Passive Voice
He was taking a big risk.	A big risk was being taken by him.
Jatin was giving order of his transfer.	Order of his transfer was being given by Jatin.
She was teaching him French.	He was being taught French by her.
She was appreciating Reeta's support.	Reeta's support was being appreciated by her.
He was not admitting his mistakes.	His mistakes were not being admitted by him.
They were giving their declarations in court.	Their declarations were being given by them in court.

§  Past Perfect 

Affirmative Form	Object + had + been + verb3 (past participle)
Question Form	Had + object + been + verb3 (past participle) ?

Something had been done by someone before sometime in the past.

Active : The brave men had defended the city.
Passive: The city had been defended by the brave men.

Active : The little girl had broken the window.
Passive: The window had been broken by the little girl.

Active : Had Dorothy solved the problems?
Passive: Had the problems been solved by Dorothy.

Active : Those prisoners had robbed five banks.
Passive: Five banks had been robbed by those prisoners.

UNIT 5

INDEFINITE PRONOUN

Indefinite pronouns do not refer to a specific person, place, or thing. In English, there is a particular group of indefinite pronouns formed with a quantifier or distributive preceeded by any, some, every and no.

	Person	Place	Thing
All	everyone everybody	everywhere	everything
Part (positive)	someone somebody	somewhere	something
Part (negative)	anyone anybody	anywhere	anything
None	no one nobody	nowhere	nothing

Indefinite pronouns with  some and any are used to describe indefinite and incomplete quantities in the same way that some and any are used alone.

Indefinite pronouns are placed in the same location as a noun would go in the sentence.

Noun	Indefinite pronoun
I would like to go to Paris this summer.	I would like to go somewhere this summer.
Jim gave me this book.	Someone gave me this book.
I won't tell your secret to Sam.	I won't tell your secret to anyone.
I bought my school supplies at the mall.	I bought everything at the mall.

AFFIRMATIVE

In affirmative sentences, indefinite pronouns using some are used to describe an indefinite quantity, the indefinite pronouns with every are used to describe a complete quantity, and the pronouns with no are used to describe an absence. Indefinite pronouns with no are often used in affirmative sentences with a negative meaning, but these are nevertheless not negative sentences because they are lacking the word not.

EXAMPLES

• Everyone is sleeping in my bed.
• Someone is sleeping in my bed.
• No one is sleeping in my bed.
• I gave everything to Sally.
• He saw something in the garden.
• There is nothing to eat.
• I looked everywhere for my keys.
• Keith is looking for somewhere to live.
• There is nowhere as beautiful as Paris.

Any and the indefinite pronouns formed with it can also be used in affirmative sentences with a meaning that is close to every: whichever person, whichever place, whichever thing, etc.

EXAMPLES

• They can choose anything from the menu.
• You may invite anybody you want to your birthday party.
• We can go anywhere you'd like this summer.
• He would give anything to get into Oxford.
• Fido would follow you anywhere.

NEGATIVE SENTENCES

Negative sentences can only be formed with the indefinite pronouns that include any.

EXAMPLES

• I don't have anything to eat.
• She didn't go anywhere last week.
• I can't find anyone to come with me.

Many negative sentences that include an indefinite pronoun with any can be turned into affirmative sentences with a negative meaning by using an indefinite pronoun with no. However, there is a change in meaning with this transformation: the sentence that includes an indefinite pronoun with no is stronger, and can imply emotional content such as definsiveness, hopelessness, anger, etc.

EXAMPLES

• I don't know anything about it. = neutral
• I know nothing about it. = defensive
• I don't have anybody to talk to. = neutral
• I have nobody to talk to. = hopeless
• There wasn't anything we could do. = neutral
• There was nothing we could do. = defensive/angry

NEGATIVE QUESTIONS

Indefinite pronouns with every, some, and any can be used to form negative questions. These questions can usually be answered with a "yes" or a "no"

Pronouns formed with anyand every are used to form true questions, while those with some generally imply a question to which we already know or suspect the answer.

EXAMPLES

• Is there anything to eat?
• Did you go anywhere last night?
• Is everyone here?
• Have you looked everywhere?

These questions can be turned in to false or rhetorical questions by making them negative. The speaker, when posing a question of this type, is expecting an answer of "no".

EXAMPLES

• Isn't there anything to eat?
• Didn't you go anywhere last night?
• Isn't everyone here?
• Haven't you looked everywhere?

Some and pronouns formed with it is only used in questions to which we think we already know the answer, or questions which are not true questions (invitations, requests, etc.) The person asking these questions is expecting an answer of "Yes".

EXAMPLES

• Are you looking for someone?
• Have you lost something?
• Are you going somewhere?
• Could somebody help me, please? = request
• Would you like to go somewhere this weekend? = invitation

These questions can be made even more definite if they are made negative. In this case, the speaker is absolutely certain he will receive the answer "Yes".

EXAMPLES

• Aren't you looking for someone?
• Haven't you lost something?
• Aren't you going somewhere?
• Couldn't somebody help me, please?
• Wouldn't you like to go somewhere this weekend?

Reflexive Pronouns

What Is a Reflexive Pronoun?

A reflexive pronoun is a type of pronoun that is preceded by the adverb, adjective, pronoun, ornoun to which it refers, so long as that antecedent is located within the same clause.

In English grammar, a reflexive pronoun indicates that the person who is realizing the action of the verb is also the recipient of the action. While this might seem strange at first glance, the following examples of reflexive pronouns and the accompanying list of reflexive pronouns will help you gain thorough understanding. In fact, you will probably notice that you yourself use reflexive pronouns frequently when speaking or writing.

Examples of Reflexive Pronouns

In the following examples of reflexive pronouns, the reflexive pronoun in each sentence is italicized.

1. I was in a hurry, so I washed the car myself.
2. You’re going to have to drive yourself to school today.
3. He wanted to impress her, so he baked a cake himself.
4. Jennifer does chores herself because she doesn’t trust others to do them right.
5. That car is in a class all by itself.
6. We don’t have to go out; we can fix dinner ourselves.
7. You are too young to go out by yourselves.
8. The actors saved the local theatre money by making costumes themselves.

UNIT 6

Have something done and causative have

We use have + object + -ed form when we talk about someone doing something for us which we ask or instruct them to do. It emphasises the process/action rather than who performs it:

We’re having the house painted next week. (We are not going to paint the house ourselves. Someone else will paint it. The emphasis is on the fact that the house is being painted rather than who is doing it.)

Warning:

This pattern is not the same as the present perfect or past perfect.

Compare

I had my hair cut.	Someone cut my hair.
I’ve cut my hair. I’d cut my hair.	I cut my own hair.

We can also use have + object + -ed form when something bad happens, especially when someone is affected by an action which they did not cause:

They’ve had their car stolen. (‘They’ are affected by the action of the car being stolen but they did not cause this to happen.)

Hundreds of people had their homes destroyed by the hurricane. (Hundreds of people were affected by the hurricane, which they did not cause.)

Asking or instructing

We use the pattern have + object + infinitive without to when we talk about instructing someone (underlined) to do something. We use it to emphasise who performed the action:

I’ll have Harry book you a taxi. (I will instruct Harry to book a taxi for you. Emphasis is on who will do the action more than on the action.)

He had Kay make us all some tea.

Talking about an experience

We use have + object + -ing form or infinitive without to to talk about an event or experience. We use the -ing form for an event in progress and the infinitive without to for a completed event:

We had a man singing to us as we sat in the restaurant having our meal.

We had a strange woman come to the door selling pictures.

We can also use the -ing form to describe an ongoing action that someone or something is causing:

Her story had us laughing so much. (Her story was making us laugh.)

I just had them doing stretch routines, and after, they got really good at it.

Causative Have

1. ACTIVE

Have usually indicates that the person used his or her authority to obtain the result.

We use causative have to show that you ask someone to do something. When we use “have”, we usually have power over somebody. We don’t need to persuade them, you are paying them to do something or you are in charge. 

 Pattern : S + have(has/had) + someone + infinitive without “to”

Example:

1. I will have Rudy paint my room tomorrow.

2. Susi has had her sister buy a tin of candy.

3. Did you have the supplier send me more samples?

4. Does the teacher have the student read the book?

2. PASSIVE

We use causative have or get when we had some kind of work done for us.

 Pattern : S + have + O + V3 (past participle)

  S + get + O + V3 (past participle)

Example:

1. We have had our house repainted.

2. I have my jacket cleaned at a laundry.

3. Who is having his room cleaned?        

4. Who must have the work finished on time?

5. She gets her car fixed by a mechanic.

6. They get their taxes done every year by an accountant.

7. Who will get her letters mailed tomorrow?

8. Who got her letter typed by a friend?

UNIT 7

DETERMINERS (ALL, EACH, EVERY, FEW, LITTLE)

• ALL

The distributive determiner all is used to talk about a whole group, with a special emphasis on the fact that nothing has been left out. All can be used as a distributive in several different patterns.

All can be used with uncountable nouns and plural countable nouns by itself. In this usage, it refers to the group as a concept rather than as individuals.

EXAMPLES

• All cheese contains protein.
• I like all dogs.
• All children need affection.
• This soap is for all purposes.

All can be used with uncountable nouns and plural countable nouns preceeded by the or a possessive pronoun. In this case, the meaning is shifted towards referring to a concrete, physical group rather than the group as a concept. In these uses, the word of can be added just after all with no change in meaning.

EXAMPLES

• All the people in the room were silent.
• All of the birds flew away.
• Have you eaten all the bread?
• I will need all of the sugar.
• I've invited all my friends to the party.
• I've used up all of our eggs.
• You wasted all your time.

All can be used with plural pronouns preceeded by of.

EXAMPLES

• All of us are going.
• He scolded all of you.
• Did you find all of them?

All can be used in questions and exclamations with uncountable nouns preceeded by this or that. In these uses, the word of can be added just afterall with no change in meaning.

EXAMPLES

• Who has left all this paper on my desk?
• Look at all this snow!
• Why is all of that sugar on the floor?
• Where did all of this confetti come from?

All can be used in questions and exclamations with countable nouns preceeded by these or those. In these uses, the word of can be added just after all with no change in meaning.

EXAMPLES

• Look at all those balloons!
• Where did all of those books come from?
• Why are all these children crying?

• EACH

Each is a way of seeing the members of a group as individuals, while every is a way of seeing a group as a series of members. These distributives can only be used in countable nouns. They are normally used with singular nouns, and are placed before the noun. In many cases, they are interchangeable.

EXAMPLES:

• Each child received a present.
• Every child received a present.
• I gave each plant some water.
• I gave every plant some water.

Each can also be used with plural nouns and pronouns but must be followed by 'of'. Every cannot be used with plural nouns.

EXAMPLES:

• Each of the children received a present.
• I gave each of the plants some water.
• He told each of us our jobs.
• I gave each of them a kiss.

• EVERY

Every can express different points in a series, especially with time expressions. Each works in the same way, but is less common.

EXAMPLES:

• Every morning John goes jogging.
• This magazine is published every week.
• I have my coffee here every day.
• I go visit my mother each week.
• Each Monday, he buys a kilo of apples.

• FEW AND LITTLE

 little and few are quantifiers meaning ‘some’. Little and few have negative meanings. We use them to mean ‘not as much as may be expected or wished for’.

• Compare

All she wanted was a few moments on her own.	some, a small number
She had few moments on her own.	not many/almost none
She saves a little money every month.	some, a small amount
They had little money to spend.	not much/almost nothing
A: Have you got any money? B: Yes, a little.	some, a small amount
A: Have you got any money? B: No, very little.	not much/almost nothing

• A little, a few with a noun
• We use a little with singular uncountable nouns. We use a few with plural countable nouns:
• Mary said nothing, but she drank some tea and ate a little bread.
• We stayed a few days in Florence and visited the museums.

• Little, few with a noun

We use little with uncountable nouns. We use few with plural countable nouns. They are used in formal contexts:

I’m not very happy about it but I suppose I have little choice.

Few cities anywhere in Europe can match the cultural richness of Berlin.

[talking about a period of history]

At that time few people travelled who didn’t have to.

• little, few without a noun

We can use (a) little and (a) few as pronouns. We can use them to substitute for a noun when it is obvious from the context:

After that, she began to tell them a little about her life in Scotland, particularly her life with the Rosenblooms.

Don’t take all the strawberries. Just have a few. (Just have a few strawberries.)

Little and few are not very common without a noun. We use them in formal contexts:

Little is known about his upbringing and education.

Few would be in favour of police officers carrying weapons.

• little of, (a) few of

We use of with (a) little and (a) few when they come before articles (a/an, the), demonstratives (this, that), possessives (my, your) or pronouns (him, them):

Put the flour into a bowl, blend with a little of the milk, beat in the egg yolks, then the sugar and the rest of the milk.

A few of his films were seen abroad.

• A little: adverb

We use a little as an adverb of degree. It is more formal than a bit:

He smiled just a little.

Her hands were shaking a little.

• A little with adjectives, determiners, adverbs

We use a little before adjectives and adverbs to modify them. It is more formal than a bit:

She seemed to be getting a little better.

What you need is a little more romance.

We often use a little with bit:

I find that a little bit hard to believe.

• Little: adjective

We use little as an adjective to mean ‘small’:

‘You’re going to have a little baby brother, Martha,’ her mother told her one day.

I know a little restaurant not far from here.

Little or small?

Little and small have similar meanings. We use small to refer only to size. We use little to refer to size, but also to express a positive emotion (especially with words like beautiful, lovely, wonderful):

He’s a small baby. (He’s smaller than average.)

He’s a lovely little baby. (He’s lovely and small.)

There’s a wonderful little café a the end of the street. (preferred to: There’s a wonderful small café at the end of the street.)

UNIT 8

QUESTIONS TAG

Question tags are the short questions that we put on the end of sentences – particularly in spoken English. There are lots of different question tags but the rules are not difficult to learn.

Positive/negative

If the main part of the sentence is positive, the question tag is negative ….

• He’s a doctor, isn’t he?
• You work in a bank, don’t you?

... and if the main part of the sentence is negative, the question tag is positive.

• You haven’t met him, have you?
• She isn’t coming, is she?

With auxiliary verbs

The question tag uses the same verb as the main part of the sentence. If this is an auxiliary verb (‘have’, ‘be’) then the question tag is made with the auxiliary verb.

• They’ve gone away for a few days, haven’t they?
• They weren’t here, were they?
• He had met him before, hadn’t he?
• This isn’t working, is it?

Without auxiliary verbs

If the main part of the sentence doesn’t have an auxiliary verb, the question tag uses an appropriate form of ‘do’.

• I said that, didn’t I?
• You don’t recognise me, do you?
• She eats meat, doesn’t she?

With modal verbs

If there is a modal verb in the main part of the sentence the question tag uses the same modal verb.

• They couldn’t hear me, could they?
• You won’t tell anyone, will you?

With ‘I am’

Be careful with question tags with sentences that start ‘I am’. The question tag for ‘I am’ is ‘aren’t I?’

• I’m the fastest, aren’t I?

Intonation

Question tags can either be ‘real’ questions where you want to know the answer or simply asking for agreement when we already know the answer.

If the question tag is a real question we use rising intonation. Our tone of voice rises.

If we already know the answer we use falling intonation. Our tone of voice falls.

UNIT 9

SO AND SUCH – THIRD CONDITIONAL

• So

‘So’ has a number of different meanings and is used in different ways.

‘so’ and ‘neither’ short answers

We can use ‘so’ in short answers to mean ‘also’

–        “I like this film” “So do I.”

–        “I’m tired” “So am I.”

–        She’s got a happy face and so has he.

As in questions, the verb with ‘so’ in these short answers is the same as the auxiliary verb. If there is no auxiliary we use ‘do’.

‘so’ with certain verbs

‘So’ is used in place of a clause after certain verbs,

§  “Is John coming?” “I think so.”

§  “Are you going to tell him?” “I suppose so.”

As well as think and suppose we can make this kind of sentence with hope, believe and expect.

Note that we can also say ‘I don’t think so’ but all the other verbs would use not.

v  “Is John coming?” “I hope not.”

‘so’ and ‘such’ with adjectives and nouns

‘So’ can be followed by an adjective

      It’s so hot today!

      She looks so young in that photo.

• Such

‘Such’ is used if there is a noun or adjective + noun.

ü  It’s such a hot day today!

ü  They’re such lovely trousers. Where did you buy them?

Both these ‘so’ and ‘such’ structures are often used with a ‘that’ clause

• It was so cold that the water in the lake froze.
• He was such a good teacher that we all passed the exam.

Third Conditional

We make the third conditional by using the past perfect after 'if' and then 'would have' and the past participle in the second part of the sentence:

if + past perfect, ...would + have + past participle

It talks about the past. It's used to describe a situation that didn't happen, and to imagine the result of this situation.

• If she had studied, she would have passed the exam (but, really we know she didn't study and so she didn't pass)
• If I hadn't eaten so much, I wouldn't have felt sick (but I did eat a lot, and so I did feel sick).
• If we had taken a taxi, we wouldn't have missed the plane
• She wouldn't have been tired if she had gone to bed earlier
• She would have become a teacher if she had gone to university
• He would have been on time for the interview if he had left the house at nine

UNIT 11

DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

DIRECT SPEECH	INDIRECT SPEECH
PRESENT TENSE
PRESENT SIMPLE changes into PAST SIMPLE
He said, “I write a letter” She said, “he goes to school daily” They said, “we love our country” He said, “he does not like computer”	He said that he wrote a letter. He said that she went to school daily. They said that they loved their country He said that he did not like computer.
PRESENT CONTINUOUS changes into PAST CONTINUOUS
He said, “he is listening to the music” She said, “I am washing my clothes” They said, “we are enjoying the weather” I said, “it is raining” She said, “I am not laughing”	He said that he was listening to the music. She said that she was washing her clothes. They said that they were not enjoyingthe weather. She said that she was not laughing.
PRESENT PERFECT changes into PAST PERFECT
She said, “he has finished his work” He said, “I have started a job” I said, “she have eaten the meal” They said, “we have not gone to New York.	She said that he had finished his work. He said that he had started a job. I said that she had eaten the meal. They said that they had not gone to New York.
PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS changes into PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
He said, “I have been studying since 3 O’clock” She said, “It has been raining for three days.” I said, “She has been working in this office since 2007”	He said that he had been studying since 3 O’clock. She said that it been raining for three days. I said that she had been working in this office since 2007.

UNIT 12

DIRECT AND INDIRECT (PAST SIMPLE & PAST PERFECT)

1. Simple Past

Affirmatives

• Direct speech: RP +, + S + V2 + ROTS
  He said to him, “I went to Texas yesterday.”
• Indirect speech: RP + that + S + had + V3 + ROTS
  He told him that he had come to Texas the day before.

With to be verbs

• Direct speech: RP +, + S + be2 + ROTS
  He said, “I was angry this morning.”
• Indirect speech: RP + that +S + had been + ROTS
  He told me that he had been angry that morning.

Negatives

• Direct speech: RP +, + S + did not + V1 + ROTS
  He said to his wife, “We didn`t clean the kitchen properly this morning.”
• Indirect speech: RP + that + S + had not + V3 + ROTS
  He told his wife that they hadn’t cleaned the kitchen properly that morning.

Interrogatives

• Direct speech: RP +, + did + S + V1 + ROTS
  She asked, “Did you buy the lap top for me?”
• Indirect speech: RP + if + had + V3 + ROTS
  She asked me if I had bought the lap top for her.

Negative interrogatives

• Direct speech: RP +, + Did not + S + V1 + ROTS
  He asked, “Didn’t you sleep well last night?”
• Indirect speech: RP + if + had not + V3 + ROTS
  He asked me if I hadn’t slept well the night before.

WH/Information question

• Direct speech: RP +, + WH + did + S + V1 + ROTS
  He asked, “When did she start learning English at Learn ESL?”
• Indirect speech: RP + WH + S + had + V3 + ROTS
  He wanted to know when she had started learning English at Learn ESL.

2. Past Perfect

The past perfect tense is used in several different ways.

One of the most common ones happens when there are

two past actions and one happened before the other:

the past perfect tense is used for the first (earlier) action.

Another common use for the past perfect is in indirect

(reported) speech. In indirect speech, the tenses of verbs

in statements and questions that are reported (said by

one person to another) are influenced by the tense of

the sentence's main verb: if the main verb is in a past

tense, the tense in the reported statement or question is

changed to a corresponding past tense:

actual past tense	after a past main verb
Simple Past	Past Perfect
past progressive	past perfect progressive
present perfect	past perfect
present perfect progressive	past perfect progressive
past perfect	past perfect
past perfect progressive	past perfect progressive

Examples:

Bob said to Julie, "Did you eat earlier?"

Bob asked Julie if she had eaten earlier.

Bob added, "I was hoping to have dinner with you."

Bob added (that) he had been hoping to have dinner

with Julie.

Julie said, "I'm sorry, but I've already eaten and I'm full."

Julie said (that) she was sorry but added that she had

already eaten and (that she) was full.

Bob said, "I'd been counting on seeing you." --->

Bob said (that) he'd been counting on seeing Julie.

UNIT 13

DIRECT INDIRECT (FUTURE – FUTURE COUNTINOUS)

DIRECT INDIRECT IMPERATIVE

FUTURE TENSE
FUTURE SIMPLE TENSE WILL changes into WOULD
He said, “I will study the book” She said, “I will buy a computer” They said to me, “we will send yougifts” I said, “I will not take the exam”	He said that he would study the book. She said that she would buy a computer. They said to me that they would send you gifts. I said that I would not take the exam.
FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE WILL BE changes into WOULD BE
I said to him, “ I will be waiting for him” She said,” I will be shifting to new home” He said, “I will be working hard” He said, “he will not be flying kite”	I said to him that I would be waiting for him. She said that she would be shifting to a new home. He said that he would be working hard. She said that he would not be flyingkites.
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE WILL HAVE changes into WOULD HAVE
He said, “I will have finished the work” She said, “they will have passed theexamination” He said, “I will have gone”	He said that he would have finished the work. She said that they would have passedthe examination. He said that he would have gone.

Indirect speech of imperative sentence.

A sentence which expresses command, request, advice or suggestion is called imperative sentence. 

For example,
     •  Open the door.
     •  Please help me.
     •  Learn your lesson.

To change such sentences into indirect speech, the word “ordered” or “requested” or “advised” or “suggested” or “forbade” or “not to do” is added to reporting verb depending upon nature of imperative sentence in reported speech.

Examples.
           Direct speech: He said to me, “please help me”
           Indirect Speech: He requested me to help him.

           Direct speech: She said to him, “you should work hard for exam”
           Indirect Speech: He suggested him to work hard for exam.

           Direct speech: They said to him, “do not tell a lie”
           Indirect Speech: They said to him not to tell a lie.

           Direct speech: He said, “open the door”
           Indirect Speech: He ordered to open the door.

           Direct speech: The teacher said to student, “do not waste time”
           Indirect Speech: The teacher advised the students not to waste time.

           Direct speech: He said, “please give me glass of water”
           Indirect Speech: He requested to give him a glass of water.

           Direct speech: Doctor said to me, “Do not smoke”
           Indirect Speech: Doctor advised me not to smoke.

           Direct speech: The teacher said to him, “Get out”
           Indirect Speech: The teacher ordered him to get out.

UNIT 14

DIRECT INDIRECT QUESTION

'Yes / No' Questions

To make an indirect 'yes / no' question, we use 'if' and the word order of a normal positive sentence. This is the same as for reported 'yes / no' questions. On the other hand, we don't usually need to 'backshift' (change the tense of the verb) as we do with reported questions.

Of course, most tenses make questions by using 'inversion' (changing the word order). To change from a direct 'yes / no' question with inversion to an indirect question, you add 'if' and change the word order back to a normal positive sentence. You don't need to use inversion.

'Yes / no' questions for tenses with inversion:

Verb Tense	Direct Question	Indirect Question
Present simple with 'be'	Is he Spanish?	Can you tell me if he is Spanish?
Present continuous	Is the restaurant closing now?	Can you tell me if the restaurant is closing now?
Past simple with 'be'	Was he late for the meeting?	Can you tell me if he was late for the meeting?
Past continuous	Were you watching TV at 3pm?	Can you tell me if you were watching TV at 3pm?
Present perfect	Has Lucy been to Mexico?	Can you tell me if Lucy has been to Mexico?
Present perfect continuous	Has she been living here long?	Can you tell me if she has been living here long?
Past perfect	Had she found this job when she moved here?	Can you tell me if she had found this job when she moved here?
Past perfect continuous	Had she been living here long when she met you?	Can you tell me if she had been living here long when she met you?
Future simple with 'will'	Will she start her new job next week?	Can you tell me if she will start her new job next week?
Future simple with 'going to'	Is it going to rain later?	Can you tell me if it is going to rain later?
Future continuous	Will Lisa be meeting the boss later?	Can you tell me if Lisa will be meeting the boss later?
Future perfect	Will he have finished the report by tonight?	Can you tell me if he will have finished the report by tonight?
Future perfect continuous	Will he have been studying French for twenty years when he retires?	Can you tell me if he will have been studying French for twenty years when he retires?
Modal verbs	Should we start now?	Can you tell me if we should start now?

               
'Yes / no' questions with tenses that use 'do / does / did':

Sometimes you want to make an indirect question using the present simple of any verb except 'be' or the past simple of any verb except 'be'. These tense make direct questions by using 'do / does / did'. When we want to make indirect 'yes / no' questions using these tenses, we need 'if' and we don't need 'do / does / did'.

Verb Tense	Direct Question	Indirect Question
Present simple with any verb except 'be'	Does David live in London?	Can you tell me if David lives in London?
Past simple with any verb except 'be'	Did Amanda call John yesterday?	Can you tell me if Amanda called John yesterday?

'Wh' Questions

In the same way as with reported 'wh' questions, we use the question word and the word order of a normal positive sentence to make indirect 'wh' questions. We don't need to use inversion. Again, we also don't usually need to 'backshift' (change the tense of the verb) as we do with reported questions.

To change a direct question to an indirect question for tenses that make questions using inversion, you just add 'if' and change the word order back to a normal positive sentence.

'Wh' questions for tenses with inversion:

Verb Tense	Direct Question	Indirect Question
Present simple with 'be'	Why is he unhappy?	Can you tell me why he is unhappy?
Present continuous	When is the restaurant closing?	Can you tell me when the restaurant is closing?
Past simple with 'be'	Why was he late for the meeting?	Can you tell me why he was late for the meeting?
Past continuous	What were you doing at 3pm?	Can you tell me what you were doing at 3pm?
Present perfect	Where has Lucy been?	Can you tell me where Lucy has been?
Present perfect continuous	How long has she been living here?	Can you tell me how long she has been living here?
Past perfect	Why had she quit her job before she moved here?	Can you tell me why she had quit her job before she moved here?
Past perfect continuous	How long had she been living here when she met you?	Can you tell me how long she had been living here when she met you?
Future simple with 'will'	When will she start her new job?	Can you tell me when she will start her new job?
Future simple with 'going to'	When is it going to rain?	Can you tell me when it is going to rain?
Future continuous	What time will Lisa be meeting the boss?	Can you tell me what time Lisa will be meeting the boss?
Future perfect	When will he have finished the report?	Can you tell me when he will have finished the report?
Future perfect continuous	How long will he have been studying French when he retires?	Can you tell me how long he will have been studying French when he retires?
Modal verbs	What should we do now?	Can you tell me what we should do now?

'Wh' questions for tenses with 'do / does / did':

Sometimes you want to make an indirect 'wh' question using the present simple of any verb except 'be' or the past simple of any verb except 'be'. Usually these tenses make questions by using 'do / does / did'. However, when we want to make indirect 'wh' questions using these tenses, we don't need 'do / does / did'. Instead, we use a question word and then normal positive sentence word order.

Verb Tense	Direct Question	Indirect Question
Present simple with any verb except 'be'	Where does David live?	Can you tell me where David lives?
Past simple with any verb except 'be'	Why did Amanda call John yesterday?	Can you tell me why Amanda called John yesterday?